The papal conclave begins today in the Vatican, during which cardinals will elect the 267th pope in history.

Before white smoke rises from the Sistine Chapel and the traditional announcement, "Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: Habemus Papam" (I announce to you great joy: we have a pope) is heard from the balcony of St. Peter's Basilica, here are some of the most notable, scandalous and interesting papal elections in history.

897: The “Cadaver Synod”

897: This period is known as the age of "papal anarchy", when political and ecclesiastical strife reigned in Rome. The most scandalous incident was the "Synod of Corpses" when Pope Stephen VI (elected in 896) ordered the trial of the corpse of his predecessor, Pope Formosus. Formosus's body was exhumed, dressed in papal robes, placed on a throne, and "tried" on charges of usurping the papacy. The corpse was found guilty, its fingers were cut off, and its body was thrown into the Tiber River.

The scandal arose from a struggle between the noble families of Rome, particularly the Dukes of Spoleto, and the Holy Roman Empire for control of the papacy. Formosus had proclaimed Emperor Lambert emperor, which displeased his opponents. Stephen VI, dependent on the Spoleto family, used this trial to destroy Formosus's legacy.

The election of Stephen VI was scandalous in itself. After his brief pontificate (he was strangled in prison in 897), rapid changes began. In the following years, a series of popes were elected, including Theodore II (a 20-day pontificate) and John IX, who attempted to restore order. Formosus's authority was later restored.

1139: Second Lateran Council and the first celibate pope

The Second Lateran Council (1139) was a significant event in the history of the Catholic Church, as it formally established the celibacy requirement for clergy, including the popes. This decision was intended to reform the church by eliminating nepotism and secular influences. The conclave of 1130 that preceded the council had already been scandalous, as two popes, Innocent II and Anacletus II (the antipope), were elected simultaneously. Innocent II's election was recognized as legitimate at the Lateran Council, and he is considered the first pope to be elected after the formal establishment of the celibacy requirement. The conclave was tense, as Anacletus II had the support of the noble families of Rome and some cardinals, which led to a temporary split in the church.

The celibacy requirement was introduced to enhance the church's moral authority and reduce the influence of secular authorities. The scandal of the conclave of 1130 was due to factions among the cardinals and interference from the noble families of Rome. Anacletus II's election was linked to local authorities, while Innocent II received support from European monarchs, such as the German Emperor and the King of France.

The election of Innocent II and the decisions of the Second Lateran Council consolidated the church's reforms. The requirement of partiality became an essential principle of church discipline, although its full implementation took centuries. The restoration of church unity marked Innocent II's pontificate.

1294: Election of Celestine V

1294. The church was unable to elect a new pope for two years. Finally, the cardinals elected the 80-year-old hermit Peter Morone, who became Celestine V. He is known as one of the only popes to resign from the papacy voluntarily after only five months.

The cardinals' indecision and the church's internal problems led to the election of an unexpected candidate. Celestine V, known for his modesty and ascetic life, was not prepared to lead the intrigue-filled apparatus of a powerful church.

His resignation is explained by his spiritual character and the perception that he was not prepared to lead the church. This laid the foundation for the emergence of temporary popes' resignations.

1378: Beginning of the Avignon Schism

1378: This is considered one of the most scandalous conclaves in history; after the death of Pope Gregory XI, a conclave in Rome elected Urban VI. The election was held in an agitated atmosphere. The inhabitants of Rome, fearing that a French pope would be elected (from 1309 to 1377, the popes had resided in Avignon, under French influence), besieged the conclave and threatened the cardinals. Urban VI's harsh and violent character did not please the cardinals, who declared that the election was illegitimate due to popular pressure. In the same year, the cardinals elected Clement VII (the antipope) at Fondi, who moved to Avignon. This led to the Great Western Schism (1378–1417), when the church was divided between two and three popes.

The crisis was caused by political tensions between France and Italy and ecclesiastical problems caused by the Avignon Papacy. Most of the cardinals were French and wanted to maintain French influence. Urban VI, the intransigence of the Borgias, exacerbated the problem.

Urban VI (Rome, legitimate pope) and Clement VII (Avignon, antipope) were elected. When Martin V was elected, the crisis was resolved at the Council of Constance in 1417.

1492: Alexander VI (Borgia)

Rodrigo Borgia, elected as Alexander VI in 1492, is considered one of the most controversial popes in history. His election was scandalous, as, according to contemporaries, he bought the cardinals' votes with bribes and promises. The Borgia family was known for political intrigue and moral decay. Alexander VI's pontificate was marked by nepotism (giving high positions to his children, including Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia), love affairs, and the decline of the church's authority.

During the Renaissance, papal elections were often a battleground between secular authorities and wealthy families. The Borgias used their financial and political influence to make Rodrigo pope. The conclave took place amid geopolitical tensions between Spain and Italy.

Alexander VI is known for the division of the New World between Spain and Portugal (Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494) and his family's scandalous life, which has inspired many literary and cinematic works.

1903: Election of Pius X and the last case of the "veto"

In the 1903 conclave, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary formally exercised his "veto" by appealing to the cardinals and opposing the election of the leading candidate, Mariano Rampola. This was the last time in history that a political power directly intervened in the election of a Pope.

The use of the veto was due to the interests of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which wanted to maintain influence within the Catholic Church and its convenient political position in Europe. Rampola, who had some support from the cardinals, could be the pope who would cooperate with Austria, which did not please the other powerful states of the Catholic Church.

The angry cardinals finally elected Pius X, who later passed a ban that regulated foreign interference in papal elections, ending such interference. Pius X became a symbol of modesty, morality, and church reform.

1978: Double Conclave or Year of Three Popes

1978 saw the unprecedented event of two papal elections in one year. After the death of Pope Paul VI, John Paul I was elected in August but died just 33 days later, causing great shock. A second conclave was held in October, electing Karol Wojtyła, John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 450 years.

The sudden death of John Paul I gave rise to many suspicions and conspiracy theories. Until then, the church had been wary of the papacy's strong power structures and sought a leader to complement this gap. The election of John Paul II was conditioned by the need to expand the church's global role and establish a new path, restoring ties with foreign countries and secular institutions.

The pontificate of John Paul II marked a new era for the Catholic Church, with active global involvement. Under his leadership, the church greatly strengthened its position worldwide, especially in Central and Eastern Europe.

Prepared by Arman Galoyan